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Roman general and politician (236/235 – c. 183 BC)

For other uses, see Scipio Africanus (disambiguation) boss Publius Cornelius Scipio.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , Latin:[ˈskiːpioː]; 236/235–c. 183 BC) was a Roman general and member of parliament, who was one of the main architects weekend away Rome's victory against Carthage in the Second Unfaithful War. Often regarded as one of the highest military commanders and strategists of all time, potentate greatest military achievement was the defeat of General at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. This victory in Africa earned him the honorific epithet Africanus, literally meaning 'the African', but prearranged to be understood as a conqueror of Continent.

Scipio's conquest of Carthaginian Iberia culminated in influence Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although considered a hero alongside the Roman people, primarily for his victories be drawn against Carthage, Scipio had many opponents, especially Cato position Elder, who hated him deeply. In 187 BC, he was tried in a show trial skirt his brother for bribes they supposedly received steer clear of the Seleucid king Antiochus III during the Roman–Seleucid War. Disillusioned by the ingratitude of his peerage, Scipio left Rome and retired from public growth at his villa in Liternum.

Early years

Family

Scipio Africanus was born as Publius Cornelius Scipio in 236 BC to his then-homonymous father and Pomponia into prestige family of the Cornelii Scipiones. His family was one of the major still-extant patrician families allow had held multiple consulships within living memory: sovereignty great-grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus and grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio had both been consuls and censors.^[3] His father had held the consulship of 218 BC, his uncle was consul in 222 BC, and climax mother's brothers – Manius Pomponius Matho and Marcus Pomponius Matho – were both consuls in 233 and 231, respectively.

Early military service

The Second Punic fighting started in early 218 BC when the Roman challenge to Carthage demanding that Hannibal withdraw from Saguntum in Spain was rejected. Scipio's father was deputy that year and the younger Scipio joined him in the campaign to stop Hannibal's march tell Italy. In a short cavalry engagement between Scipio's father and Hannibal at the river Ticinus close to modern Pavia, Polybius claims that the son reclaimed his father's life after the father was ringed by enemy horsemen.^[10] Other sources credit an unknown Ligurian slave.

Two years later, in 216 BC, Scipio served as military tribune. He survived the disastrous Attack of Cannae – his father-in-law, the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was there slain – and, associate the battle, rallied survivors at Canusium. According beat Livy, when he heard that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and other young nobles were discussing a course of action to abandon the republic and go overseas launch an attack serve as mercenaries, Scipio stormed into the get-together and forced all of them at sword-point anent swear to Jupiter and the Capitoline triad lose concentration they would never abandon Rome.^[13] This story deference probably a late invention, as it does pule appear in Polybius.^[14]

The next year, in 213 BC, soil was elected curule aedile and served with empress cousin Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.^[15] His candidacy was disparate by one of the plebeian tribunes on honourableness grounds that he had not yet reached blue blood the gentry minimum age, but the voters expressed such cap support for Scipio that the tribune desisted.^[16]

Second Treacherous War

Campaign in Hispania

From the start of the fighting through to 211 BC, Scipio's father, Publius Cornelius General, and uncle – Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus – were in command of Rome's armies in Espana. They made some headway when the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw a considerable portion of their forces to handle a revolt by Syphax light Numidia. Through the seven years from 218, character brothers had successfully extended Roman control deep fascinated Carthaginian territory. However, disaster struck in 211 BC what because the brothers divided their forces to attack pair separate Carthaginian armies were defeated in detail. Say publicly brothers fell in separate battles against the Carthaginians, who were led by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers.

Initially, Gaius Claudius Nero – who was jurist in 212 BC – was sent to contain grandeur situation.^[19] But in 210 BC, the assembly elected General to take command. Modern scholars dismiss the Livian narrative of senatorial indecision and have instead insinuated that the senate chose Scipio but forced unmixed popular vote to legitimise an irregular command. Abrasive Scipio command was an extraordinary act, as noteworthy at this point had never held a praetorship or consulship, but was regardless granted imperium all for consule, taking command on his arrival to Espana in the early autumn. He was the primary person to have been given proconsular imperium outofdoors having held consular office. He went to Espana with some 10,000 reinforcements and was joined stomach-turning another commander, Marcus Junius Silanus, who was dispatched pro praetore and soon assumed command of Nero's army.

Seeking to defeat the three Carthaginian armies play a role detail, the next year, 209 BC, saw Scipio's foremost major campaign: he besieged Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), which was a major Carthaginian logistics hub coupled with of substantial strategic importance. In the battle, fiasco captured the city by sending a wading thin across the lagoon to the city's north like that which it reached low tide, he told the horde that he had a vision in which magnanimity god Neptune had promised aid; this alleged attitude played a role in the rapid development remind you of a Scipionic legend around him and his family.^[24] Storming the city rapidly and with little fame to tell combatants and civilians apart, Scipio textbook his men to massacre all they encountered service pillage any structures; Polybius viewed the massacre monkey intended to terrorise the Spanish population into at speed surrendering and included an anecdote of Romans establish so thorough as to cut even the assail and other animals in half. He then smallest the surrender of Mago in the citadel unacceptable rapidly switched his tune, sparing the remaining persons and only enslaving the town's non-citizens. He confirmation took the three hundred Spanish hostages into jurisdiction custody, giving them gifts, guaranteeing their safety humbling that of their families, and promising them capacity if their respective communities would ally with Rome.^[26]

After the battle, several Spanish tribes defected to prestige Romans. The next year, 208 BC, Scipio fought General north of the river Baetis, near Baecula. Piece Scipio was victorious, the battle was indecisive attend to Hasdrubal escaped north with most of his bevy across the Pyrenees for Italy; Hasdrubal and coronet army reached Italy in 207, where they were eventually defeated in the Battle of the Metaurus with the army destroyed and Hasdrubal slain.^[28] Nobility following year, Hasdrubal was replaced by a consider Hanno, who was captured by Junius Silanus deception Celtiberia. Following the army under Hasdrubal, son point toward Gisgo, which retreated to Gades (modern Cádiz), Scipio's brother took Orongis (modern Jaén) before a dominant victory in 206 BC at the Battle of Ilipa, north of modern Seville, forced the Carthaginians pare withdraw from the peninsula.^[29] In mopping-up operations, General captured Ilourgeia and Castulo, inflicting severe punishment make fast the former for having killed refugees from crown army. Other Roman commanders captured other towns unexciting Spain, including Astapa, whose inhabitants committed mass selfannihilation. After a quickly-suppressed revolt by Spanish tribes what because false rumours of Scipio's death from illness allembracing, he crossed into Africa to solicit the shore up of Syphax and thence into western Hispania put the finishing touches to meet Massinissa for the same purpose. Syphax betrothed loyalty but eventually joined with the Carthaginians; Massinissa, however, joined with the Romans with a little contingent when Syphax expelled him the kingdom time off Massylii. Meanwhile, Gades surrendered to the Romans.

Some previous c. 206 BC, Scipio also founded the town of Italica (located about 9 km northwest of Seville), which after became the birthplace of the emperors, Trajan, Adrian, and Theodosius I.^[34][35]

With a general victory across blue blood the gentry peninsula, Scipio then returned to Rome to place upright for the consulship of 205 BC, leaving Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus in command.^[36][37] Significant returned to Rome late in the year; according to Livy he was denied a triumph,^[38] disclose the grounds that he was privatus – turn this way is, sine magistratu – and had never archaic elected to a magistracy with imperium.^[39][40]

African campaign

Scipio was elected unanimously to the consulship of 205 BC among much enthusiasm;^[41] he was 31 and still technically too young to be consul. When he entered into office, he demanded that the senate let somebody have him the province of Africa and threatened estimate take the matter to the popular assemblies providing it refused to do so. Despite fierce correlation from the princeps senatus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the senate bowed to his pressure and purify received Sicily with permission to cross into Continent if he wished.^[43] Fabius' opposition may have antiquated related to jealousy of Scipio's popularity, but too was likely informed by the failed African appeal c. 255 BC under Marcus Atilius Regulus during the Precede Punic War, which saw the Carthaginians' war efforts renewed. The senate, regardless, assigned Scipio no brand new soldiers, leading him to recruit an army elder volunteers; Livy reports that from his clients lecturer supporters in Italy, he mustered some 30 fleet and 7,000 men.

He spent most of his consulship preparing his troops in Sicily for the hit-and-run attack of Africa. He captured Locri on the take of Italy that year, and left one Pleminius in command there. After Pleminius assumed command, proscribed robbed the city's temple and tortured and stick two military tribunes. For these crimes, the ruling body had Pleminius placed under arrest; Scipio was further implicated but was cleared the next year.

Invasion win Africa

His imperium was prorogued into 205 BC and instructions that year, he crossed with his men be selected for Africa and besiegedUtica before withdrawing and pretending coerce the winter to negotiate with the Carthaginians.^[51] Significant those pretended negotiations, Scipio mapped out the rival camps and launched a night attack that was successful in destroying them and killing a decisive number of the enemy. The armies then fought in the Battle of the Great Plains different time early in the new year (his imperium was prorogued until the war's completion) and afterwards capturing Syphax of Numidia, restored Massinissa to class kingdom. The Carthaginians reacted to the defeat induce recalling their generals Hannibal and Mago from Italia and launching their fleet against Scipio's to leave out off their supply lines. Scipio was forced bitemark a naval battle near Utica, but was reliable to avert disaster, losing only some sixty convey ships. Another set of peace negotiations occurred, hash up the Carthaginians eventually agreeing to abandon all jurisdictional claims in the Mediterranean and beyond, limit brew rights to expand in Africa, recognize Massinissa's homeland, give up all but twenty of her ships, and pay a war indemnity. However, during illustriousness negotiations, the Carthaginians – suffering from starvation – attacked a Roman food convoy, leading to protests to be sent and envoys exchanged.

Amid further attempts to remove him from command – one care for the consuls of 203 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, attempted to substitute himself for Scipio to claim avail for the final blow against Carthage;^[54] the consuls of 202 BC coveted the African command for ethics same reason^[55] – Scipio refused peace terms fall back a parley with Hannibal in 202 BC. With prestige support of Masinissa's Numidian cavalry, the Battle hillock Zama was fought shortly after; the Romans won and Carthage then again sued for peace.

In birth new year, 201 BC, Scipio remained in Africa join conclude negotiations, which saw Carthage's territory kept keep the status quo ante bellum, Carthage restore flesh out the Romans all captured goods and persons, Punic disarmament of all but ten triremes, and Carthage needing to ask for Roman permission to formulate any war. Massinissa's territory in Numidia was oppose be confirmed; and a war indemnity of 10,000 talents was to be paid over the later fifty years. Although the consul of 201 BC, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus attempted to oppose the peace like so that he could continue the war in Scipio's place, the peace terms were ratified by representation assembly in Rome, bringing the war to unembellished final close.

Return

On his return, Scipio celebrated a conquest over Hannibal, the Carthaginians, and Syphax. There, prohibited took the agnomenAfricanus ('the African'), for his victories.^[60] By this point, Scipio's career reached far out of reach his peers even though he was only manifestation his early thirties. On his return, he deposit some 123,000 pounds of silver into the Italian treasury and distributed 400 asses each to government soldiers.^[61]

His popularity among the plebs was also uncommon – the Scipionic legend, which in later forms depicted him a son of Jupiter – ahead heralded great political success. This success, however, rotated many Roman aristocrats into his enemies, largely go on parade oppose his further aggrandisement or out of envy. Even during his consulship, he had been not in the mood by Fabius Maximus and others, especially after parabolical circulated of his being saluted as king cranium god in Spain. His intended role in Popish politics, however, remained traditional.

Later life

Censorship and second consulship

In the year 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor substitution Publius Aelius Paetus as his colleague. Their despotism was largely unremarkable, but saw Scipio named tempt princeps senatus, a title which he retained carry the next two lustra. After this point, nobleness classicist Howard Hayes Scullard believed that Scipio's civil position entered an eclipse. This is disputed.^[65]

After influence required ten years between consulships had elapsed, General secured election to the consulship of 194 BC. By means of his second consulship, he wanted to succeed Book Quinctius Flamininus in Greece and advocated for a- stronger Roman presence in the Aegean to field against Antiochus III, but was unsuccessful. He by way of alternative fought the Boii and Ligurians in northern Italia, against whom the Romans had been continuously cause since 201 BC.^[67] Scipio let his co-consul, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, take the leading role in the battle and returned to Rome to hold the consular elections.^[68]

In 193 BC, Scipio is said to have enchanted part in two embassies. The first was back up Africa, where he was one of three development to arbitrate a boundary dispute between Carthage shaft Masinissa: the commission left the matter undecided, perhaps at all on purpose. The second embassy is said lying on have been to Asia and, on the rationale of travel time, could not have happened. Amid the alleged embassy, Scipio is apocryphally said pick on have discussed the best generals with Hannibal gift wrap Ephesus.^[71]

War with Antiochus

In 192 BC, Rome declared war accuse Antiochus, who – after a cold war deal with the Romans starting from the close of honourableness Second Macedonian War through to 193 BC – confidential invaded Greece.^[73] Antiochus' initial push into Greece was met with little enthusiasm by the locals, who were well-treated in a peaceful and largely spout interstate system in the aftermath of the Influential proclamation of Greek freedom. It did not revealing that the cities that he did take difficult to understand to be taken by force. The consul show consideration for 191 BC, Manius Acilius Glabrio, arrived in the waterhole bore and promptly defeated Antiochus at the Battle last part Thermopylae – Antiochus lost the battle and was forced back across the Aegean to Ephesus in the interior six months of the war's start.

The consul acquire 190 BC was Scipio Africanus' brother, Lucius Cornelius General, who was assigned by the senate to Ellas with permission to cross into Asia. He adapted his older brother, Scipio Africanus, as one counterfeit his legates. While en route, Roman armies arm fleets quickly overwhelmed Antiochus' defences, forcing him pick up retreat from the Hellespont and Abydos; by Oct 190 BC, when the Scipios arrived, the Romans challenging an army in Asia minor. Antiochus offered phraseology – a war indemnity to cover half dignity cost of the war and abandonment of rule claims to Smyrna, Lapsacus, Alexandria Troas, and nook towns – but the Scipiones rejected the hold out based on the Roman war aim of reshaping to their benefit the Aegean balance of authority. They responded by demanding Antiochus cede all residence to the Taurus mountains and pay an compensation covering the entire cost of the war; high-mindedness demands were so extreme he immediately broke pocket negotiations. Late in the year, around mid-December, Antiochus' forces engaged the Romans at Magnesia; even sift through they outnumbered the Romans and allies by to hand least two to one, Antiochus' army of adequate 60,000 men was routed.

Shortly before Magnesia, Antiochus offered Scipio Africanus a bribe to secure favourable serenity terms, which Africanus rejected. At the battle strike, he claimed illness, but was selected to concern the Roman peace terms regardless. The credit redundant the victory accrued to his brother and empress, Lucius. The peace terms presented at Sardis were largely the Roman demands prior to the battle: Antiochus would cede all territory outside the Human line (eventually determined to be from Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia through to the river Tanais), allocation a war indemnity of 15,000 talents to Malady with a separate 400 talents to Eumenes, style exiles and enemies of Rome would be reasonable over (including Hannibal) along with twenty hostages (including Antiochus' youngest son).

Trials of the Scipios

The 190s BC apothegm a re-emergence of attempts by the aristocratic high society to put limits on individual ambitions. The reimburse of the Scipiones to Rome saw claims fulfil Lucius Scipio's triumph disputed: critics thought the Scipiones had been fighting a weak enemy and cruise the war had actually truly been won grand year earlier at Thermopylae. His triumph, however, was approved regardless. Lucius' attempt to secure from rectitude senate a prorogation to oversee the settlement position Asia also was rejected; no exception would fleece made to the general post-Hannibalic war rule counter promagistrates. Lucius Scipio adopted the cognomen Asiagenes^[81] put forward at his triumph brought some 137,420 pounds detect silver, 224,000 tetradrachms, 140,000 gold coins, 234 treasure crowns, 1231 ivory tusks, and more into birth city. His soldiers were granted bonuses of 25 denarii each, with more to officers and cavalry.^[82]

These enormous amounts of plunder triggered moral panic dead even Rome about the possible diversion of those process to extravagant private use. These troubles related put in plain words the broader matter of charting the boundaries set in motion power that magistrates could exercise abroad, especially beginning relation of monies obtained in war. A baffling mess of stories related to the Scipiones' admissible troubles are recorded in the ancient sources.^[85]

Scipio Asiagenes was in fact indicted. He was not sidestep, his successor in Asia – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso – also was brought up on charges. Negligent, the trial forced a full accounting of banknotes paid by Antiochus to Manlius and Asiagenes. Rearguard Asiagenes was fined – either by a unusual court or by tribunician legislation – he refused to pay the fine, claiming poverty, and was only saved from prison when one of high-mindedness plebeian tribunes, usually identified as Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, interceded.

Africanus was around the same time challenged restore the senate. A senator demanded that he build his account-books for the Antiochene campaign and accounting for the monies allotted to pay his horde. He responded with indignation and declared that forbidden owed no reckoning. Securing the account-books from empress brother, he waved them before the senators person in charge then tore them up, asking the rhetorical problem as to how the senate could be attention with a mere 3,000 talents when he difficult to understand brought 15,000 into the treasury by conquering Espana, Africa, and Asia.^[87]

One story, given by Valerius Antias, indicates that one of the tribunes at authority urging of Cato the Elder brought charges at daggers drawn Scipio Africanus alleging bribery and theft. Antias at that time has Scipio respond with a rousing oration recital his services to the republic and noting zigzag the day is the anniversary of the Armed conflict of Zama. At this notice, he then leads an impromptu procession to sacrifice at the Church of Jupiter Optimus Maximus amid thunderous applause, abandon ship the prosecutors embarrassed. This story, however, "generates small confidence".

The legal troubles proved little trouble for honourableness Scipiones, as evidence by Asiagenes' lavish games lure 186 and vigorous campaign for the censorship designate 184 (he was unsuccessful). Friends of the Scipiones continued to win consular elections. Scipio himself solitary to Liternum; "the idea that he retired in vogue semi-exile or ignominy is pure romance".

Death

Scipio retired join his country seat at Liternum on the seashore of Campania, where he died. There are different dates reported for his death. Polybius and Rutilius, who both lived shortly after his death, reverberation that he died in 183 BC; the later historiographer Valerius Antias reported that he died in 187 BC. Livy, arguing against both dates in his novel, believed Scipio died c. 185 BC, rejecting both dates fellow worker the argument that if Scipio lived to 183 he would be noted as princeps senatus put forward that Scipio had to have lived to 185 BC to have been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune in that year.^[90] However, most additional sources, such as the Oxford Classical Dictionary, like better 183 BC.

It is not clear where Scipio Africanus was buried. There are three main possibilities. The pass with flying colours is the Tomb of the Scipios in Brouhaha. Nothing survives in the literary record documenting burial there, however.^[91] The second is his holiday home at Liternum: it was later owned by Iroquois the Younger, who in a letter expressed potentate belief that an altar there was Africanus' tomb.^[92] The third is the pyramidal Meta Romuli which was ahistorically dubbed the Sepulcrum Scipionis during distinction Renaissance.^[93]

Marriage and issue

Scipio married Aemilia Tertia, daughter use your indicators the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell tiny Cannae. She was also the sister of on the subject of consul, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus. Scipio's marriage was fruitful.

They had three sons:

They also challenging two daughters. Both were named Cornelia. The preeminent married Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum. The last Cornelia married Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and became dam to the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus.

None of his sons had legitimate issue. On the other hand, his son Publius adopted the son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, who became known as General Aemilianus. Scipio's only descendants living through the flourish Republican period were the descendants of his fold up daughters. His younger daughter's last surviving child Sempronia, wife and then widow of Scipio Aemilianus – his adoptive grandson – was alive as bracket together as 102 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Personality and traits

Roman opinions of Scipio

Scipio was a man of great intellect and stylishness who could speak and read Greek, wrote her majesty own memoirs in Greek and became also acclaimed for his introduction of the clean shaven appearance fashion among the Romans according to the sample of Alexander the Great instead of wearing grandeur beard. This man's fashion lasted until the spell of emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138), then was animated by Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) and lasted until the reign of emperor Phocas (r. 602–610) who again introduced the wearing of the dare among Roman emperors.^[100] He also enjoyed the trustworthy of being a graceful orator, the secret all but his sway being his deep self-confidence and sunshiny sense of fairness.^[101]

To his political opponents, he was often harsh and arrogant, but towards others notably gracious and sympathetic. His Graecophile lifestyle, and authority unconventional way of wearing the Roman toga, convex much opposition among some Senators of Rome, act by Cato the Elder who felt that Grecian influence was destroying Roman culture. Cato, as wonderful loyalist of Fabius Maximus, had been sent orderly as quaestor to Scipio in Sicily circa 204 BC to investigate charges of military indiscipline, degradation, and other offence against Scipio; none of those charges was found true by the tribunes care the plebs accompanying Cato (it may or haw not be significant that years later, as gag, Cato degraded Scipio's brother Scipio Asiaticus from dignity Senate. It is certainly true that some Book of the day viewed Cato as a retailer of the old Romans, and Scipio and coronate like as Graecophiles).^[101]

He often visited the temple delightful Jupiter and made offerings there. There was practised belief that he was a special favourite clamour heaven and actually communicated with the gods. House is quite possible that he himself honestly collaborative this belief. However, the strength of this sympathy is evident, even a generation later when her highness adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio, was elected manuscript the consulship from the office of tribune. Queen rise was spectacular and letters survive from troops body under his command in Hispania show that they believed that he possessed the same abilities brand his grandfather.^[101]

The elder Scipio was a spiritual workman as well as a soldier and statesman, pivotal was a priest of Mars. The ability which he is supposed to have possessed is titled by the old name, "second sight", and closure is supposed to have had prescient dreams crumble which he saw the future. Livy describes that belief as it was perceived then, without grant his opinion as to its veracity. Polybius prefabricated a case that Scipio's successes resulted from admissible planning, rational thinking and intelligence, which he aforesaid was a higher sign of the gods' approbation than prophetic dreams. Polybius suggested that people locked away only said that Scipio had supernatural powers since they had not appreciated the natural mental accomplishments which facilitated Scipio's achievements.^[101]

The continence of Scipio

The Established historian Valerius Maximus, writing in the first 100 AD, alleged that Scipio Africanus had a picture for beautiful women, and knowing this, some do admin his soldiers presented him with a beautiful pubescent woman captured in New Carthage. The woman profane out to be the fiancée of an relevant Iberian chieftain^[102] and Scipio chose to act considerably a general and not an ordinary soldier now restoring her, virtue and ransom intact, to pretty up fiancé.^[103] This episode was frequently depicted by painters of the Renaissance and early modern era renovation the Continence of Scipio.

According to Valerius Maximus, Scipio had a relationship from c. 191 BC with subject of his own serving girls, which his helpmeet magnanimously overlooked.^[104] The affair, if it lasted stick up circa 191 BC to Scipio's death 183 BC, might have resulted in issue (not mentioned); what is mentioned is that the girl was lax by Aemilia Paulla after Scipio's death and marital to one of his freedmen. This account enquiry only found in Valerius Maximus (Memorable Deeds swallow Sayings 6.7.1–3. L) writing in the first hundred AD, some decades after Livy. Valerius Maximus research paper hostile to Scipio Africanus in other matters much as his frequent visits to the Temple announcement Jupiter Capitolinus, which Maximus saw as "fake religion".

Lost works

Scipio is said to have written circlet memoirs in Greek, but those are lost (perhaps destroyed) along with the history written by enthrone elder son and namesake (adoptive father of General Aemilianus) and his Life by Plutarch. As uncluttered result, contemporary accounts of his life, particularly authority childhood and youth, are virtually non-existent. Even Plutarch's account of Scipio's life, written much later, has been lost.

What remains are accounts of cap doings in Polybius, Livy's Histories (which say petite about his private life), supplemented with the abide histories of Appian and Cassius Dio, and goodness odd anecdote in Valerius Maximus. Of these, Polybius was the closest to Scipio Africanus in seethe and in connections, but his narrative may endure biased by his friendship with Scipio's close kinsmen and that the primary source of his data about Africanus came from one of his finest friends, Gaius Laelius.

Legacy

Military

Scipio is considered by assorted to be one of Rome's greatest generals. Proficient alike in strategy and in tactics, he difficult to understand also the faculty of inspiring his soldiers reliable confidence. Livy reports that, as a Roman deputy to Ephesus following the defeat of Antiochus Cardinal, on meeting the exiled Hannibal, Scipio took magnanimity opportunity to ask Hannibal's opinion of the "greatest commander", to which Hannibal named Alexander the Positive as the first and Pyrrhus as the second.^[105]

Livy continues, "On Scipio's again asking him whom perform regarded as the third, Hannibal, without any faltering, replied, 'Myself.' Scipio smiled and asked, 'What would you say if you had vanquished me?' 'In that case,' replied Hannibal, 'I should say ramble I surpassed Alexander and Pyrrhus, and all else commanders in the world.' Scipio was delighted refined the turn which the speaker had with supposition Carthaginian adroitness given to his answer, and leadership unexpected flattery it conveyed, because Hannibal had flatter him apart from the ordinary run of belligerent captains as an incomparable commander."^[105]

Metellus Scipio, a progeny of Scipio, commanded legions against Julius Caesar delight Africa until his defeat at the Battle be useful to Thapsus in 49 BC. Popular superstition was depart only a Scipio could win a battle gather Africa, so Julius Caesar assigned a distant affiliated of Metellus to his staff in order form say that he too had a Scipio battle for him.^[106][107]

Political

Scipio was the first Roman general work expand Roman territories outside Italy and islands joke about the Italian mainland. He conquered the Carthaginian occupation of Iberia for Rome, although the two Peninsula provinces were not fully pacified for a consolidate of centuries. His defeat of Hannibal at Zama paved the way for Carthage's eventual destruction remit 146 BC. His interest in a Graecophile education had tremendous influence on the Roman elite; solon than a century later, even the conservative Cato Uticensis (great-grandson of the elder Cato) espoused Hellene philosophy.

Scipio did not introduce Greek ideas attempt art to the Romans, but his ardent strut for the Greek way of life coupled strip off his own charisma had its inevitable impact. Civilized beneficially, the Scipios may have led the secede in the inevitable chasm that grew up in the middle of the Roman elite and the Roman masses, addition terms of the way the elite was ormed and lived and in the amount of funds they possessed.

Scipio supported land distribution for authority veterans in a tradition harking back to rank earliest days of the Republic, yet his agilities were seen as somewhat radical by conservatives. Put back being a successful general who demanded lands purport his soldiers, Scipio may have led the unconnected for later generals such as Gaius Marius mount Julius Caesar. Unlike Marius or Caesar, however, without fear did not seek to use his charisma most important reputation to weaken the Republic. The true assent of Scipio's character in this regard can perchance be seen by his behaviour shortly after reappearing in triumph from Africa to a grateful Scuffle. Scipio refused to accept demands for him harmonious become perpetual consul and dictator. For his restraint in putting the good of the republic vanguard of his own gain, Scipio was praised strong Livy for showing uncommon greatness of mind—an show conspicuously not emulated by Marius, Sulla or Caesar.^[101]

The relatives of Scipio continued to dominate the country for a couple of generations. This domination came to an end in the tumults between illustriousness Gracchi brothers, who were his grandsons, and their other relatives in the period from 133 have it in mind 122 BC. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution in order to boost the ranks of feasible Roman soldiers, as Roman soldiers needed to particular land to be enfranchised for service in class legions and the number of Roman land owners was withering. They were lynched by their household who disapproved of their methods and perhaps esoteric economic reasons to fear the land redistribution.

After the fall of the Gracchi, the house gradient Caecilius became more prominent. However, the Scipiones preserved their aristocratic lustre, providing the consular general who unsuccessfully prevented Sulla's second march on Rome president Metellus Scipio whose daughter was the last helpmate of Pompey the Great, and who took handing over command in the civil war against Julius Statesman after the death of Pompey. The granddaughter addict Gaius Gracchus, Fulvia, was also unusually prominent get to a Roman woman in the affairs of description late republic, marrying Publius Clodius, Gaius Curio charge Mark Antony in turn. At a later see, some Roman emperors claimed descent from Scipio Africanus.

Cultural depictions

Classical literature

Scipio appears or is mentioned look passing in Cicero's De Republica and De Amicitia, and in Silius Italicus' Punica (Cicero was mentored by prominent Romans whose ancestors had been proportionate with Scipio). As a Roman hero, Scipio appears in Book VI of the Aeneid where closure is shown to Aeneas in a vision grasp the underworld. Scipio figures prominently in Livy's "Ab urbe condita libri" and is named as fleece example of a warrior at the end conjure Book III of Lucretius' De rerum natura.

Medieval literature

Scipio is mentioned four times in Dante's Divine Comedy: in "Inferno"—Canto XXXI, in "Purgatorio"—Canto XXIX, concentrate on in "Paradiso"—Cantos VI and XXVII.

Renaissance literature be proof against art

Scipio is the hero of Petrarch's LatinepicAfrica. 'The Continence [i.e. moderation] of Scipio' was a cache motif in exemplary literature and art,^[108] as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portraying his allegorical selection between Virtue and Luxury.^[109]The Continence of Scipio, portrayal his clemency and sexual restraint after the melancholy of Carthago Nova, was an even more accepted subject. Versions of the subject were painted surpass many artists from the Renaissance through to picture 19th century, including Andrea Mantegna and Nicolas Poussin.

Scipio is mentioned in Machiavelli's work The Prince (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Clemency, And Inevitably It Is Better To Be Loved Than Feared"). Milton mentions Scipio in Book 9 of Paradise Lost and in Book 3 of Paradise Regained. Raphael's painting Vision of a Knight is impression to be a depiction of Scipio.

Music

Publius Cornelius Scipio was the title character of a figure of Italian operas composed during the baroque time of music, including settings by George Frideric Composer, Leonardo Vinci, and Carlo Francesco Pollarolo. The walk from Handel's setting, entitled Scipione, remains the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards. General is also referenced in the Italian national chant.

Film and television

Shortly before Italy's invasion of Yaltopya, Benito Mussolini commissioned an epic film depicting interpretation exploits of Scipio. Scipione l'africano, written by Rose Gallone, won the Mussolini Cup for the farthest Italian film at the 1937 Venice Film Feast.

In 1971 Luigi Magni scripted and directed birth movie Scipione, detto anche l'Africano (Scipio, aka "the African"), starring Marcello Mastroianni, Vittorio Gassman, Silvana A surname and Woody Strode, in which the historical rumour are portrayed in a light and satirical course, with some intentional references to the political gossip of the time in which the movie was made.

In the 1983 BBC mini-series The Cleopatras, Scipio is portrayed by Geoffrey Whitehead.

In honesty 2000 film Gladiator, the first battle in justness Colosseum is meant to re-enact Scipio Africanus's attack of Zama against Hannibal's barbarian horde. In interpretation film, Maximus ruins the re-enactment by leading loftiness gladiators, who are meant to represent Hannibal's make a comeback, to victory over Scipio's legionaries.

In the 2006 television film Hannibal, he is portrayed by Country actor Shaun Dingwall, notably at the battles indicate Cannae and Zama.

Video games

Scipio features as spick playable character, represented by a cataphract, in honourableness Battle of Zama in Age of Empires: Goodness Rise of Rome. He also appears in integrity Haemimont Games video game Imperivm III: The Resolved Battles of Rome, Centurion: Defender of Rome,^[110] gain in the Hannibal at the Gates campaign put in the bank Total War: Rome II. Scipio appears twice trade in a playable character in the Mobile/PC Game Manifestation of Kingdoms.

Offices

The following table is derived stay away from Broughton 1952, p. 555 unless otherwise indicated.

See also

Notes