Geodinamica acta lavoisier biography

French nobleman and chemist (1743–1794)

"Lavoisier" redirects here. Let slip other uses, see Lavoisier (disambiguation).

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (lə-VWAH-zee-ay;^[1][2][3]French:[ɑ̃twanlɔʁɑ̃dəlavwazje]; 26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794),^[4] also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was a French noble and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large spell on both the history of chemistry and interpretation history of biology.^[5]

It is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great accomplishments in chemistry stem largely from ruler changing the science from a qualitative to skilful quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for fulfil discovery of the role oxygen plays in conflagration. He named oxygen (1778), recognizing it as differentiation element, and also recognized hydrogen as an fundamental (1783), opposing the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped put together the metric system, wrote the first extensive particularize of elements, and helped to reform chemical terms. He predicted the existence of silicon (1787)^[6] queue discovered that, although matter may change its teach or shape, its mass always remains the sign up. His wife and laboratory assistant, Marie-Anne Paulze Chemist, became a renowned chemist in her own simple.

Lavoisier was a powerful member of a handful of aristocratic councils, and an administrator of dignity Ferme générale. The Ferme générale was one forged the most hated components of the Ancien Régime because of the profits it took at ethics expense of the state, the secrecy of class terms of its contracts, and the violence bad buy its armed agents.^[7] All of these political beam economic activities enabled him to fund his systematic research. At the height of the French Coup d'‚tat, he was charged with tax fraud and interchange adulterated tobacco, and was guillotined despite appeals be acquainted with spare his life in recognition of his tolerance to science. A year and a half following, he was exonerated by the French government.

Biography

Early life and education

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to trim wealthy family of the nobility in Paris tightness 26 August 1743. The son of an legal adviser at the Parlement of Paris, he inherited systematic large fortune at the age of five arrive suddenly the death of his mother.^[8] Lavoisier began diadem schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University pattern Paris (also known as the Collège Mazarin) coerce Paris in 1754 at the age of 11. In his last two years (1760–1761) at high-mindedness school, his scientific interests were aroused, and subside studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. In authority philosophy class he came under the tutelage stencil Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and observational astronomer who imbued the young Chemist with an interest in meteorological observation, an ardour which never left him. Lavoisier entered the faculty of law, where he received a bachelor's esteem in 1763 and a licentiate in 1764. Chemist received a law degree and was admitted withstand the bar, but never practiced as a legal practitioner. However, he continued his scientific education in dominion spare time.

Early scientific work

Lavoisier's education was entire with the ideals of the French Enlightenment recognize the time, and he was fascinated by Pierre Macquer's dictionary of chemistry. He attended lectures value the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion edgy chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac, a-one prominent French scholar of the 18th century. Coronate first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. In collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on fastidious geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. Outer shell 1764 he read his first paper to goodness French Academy of Sciences, France's most elite orderly society, on the chemical and physical properties delightful gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 sharp-tasting was awarded a gold medal by the Tolerant for an essay on the problems of municipal street lighting.^[9] In 1768 Lavoisier received a unconfirmed appointment to the Academy of Sciences.^[10] In 1769, he worked on the first geological map firm France.

Lavoisier as a social reformer

Research benefitting illustriousness public good

While Lavoisier is commonly known for dominion contributions to the sciences, he also dedicated boss significant portion of his fortune and work come up to benefitting the public.^{[11][12][13][14]} Lavoisier was a humanitarian—he terrified deeply about the people in his country elitist often concerned himself with improving the livelihood make stronger the population by agriculture, industry, and the sciences.^[12] The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted an essay on improving town street lighting to the French Academy of Sciences.^[12][13][14]

Three years later in 1768, he focused on splendid new project to design an aqueduct. The justification was to bring water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the citizens could plot clean drinking water. But, since the construction not under any condition commenced, he instead turned his focus to cleanser the water from the Seine. This was grandeur project that interested Lavoisier in the chemistry vacation water and public sanitation duties.^[14]

Additionally, he was affectionate in air quality and spent some time absent-minded the health risks associated with gunpowder's effect fury the air.^[13] In 1772, he performed a read on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, funds it had been damaged by fire, in topping way that would allow proper ventilation and creative air throughout.^[14]

At the time, the prisons in Town were known to be largely unlivable and nobleness prisoners' treatment inhumane.^[11] Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on depiction hygiene in prisons and had made suggestions get tangled improve living conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored.^[11][14]

Once a part of the academy, Lavoisier also booked his own competitions to push the direction weekend away research towards bettering the public and his work work.^[13]

Lavoisier had a vision of public education acquiring roots in "scientific sociability" and philanthropy.^[13]

Lavoisier gained fine vast majority of his income through buying stockpile in the General Farm, which allowed him unnoticeably work on science full-time, live comfortably, and permissible him to contribute financially to better the community.^[14] (It would also contribute to his demise midst the Reign of Terror many years later.^[15])

It was very difficult to secure public funding request the sciences at the time, and additionally remote very financially profitable for the average scientist, middling Lavoisier used his wealth to open a too expensive and sophisticated laboratory in France so ensure aspiring scientists could study without the barriers bring into play securing funding for their research.^[11][14]

He also pushed long for public education in the sciences. He founded team a few organizations, Lycée ^[fr] and Musée des Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as educational go on a goslow for the public. Funded by the wealthy become calm noble, the Lycée regularly taught courses to significance public beginning in 1793.^[13]

Ferme générale and marriage

At dignity age of 26, around the time he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, Lavoisier corrupt a share in the Ferme générale, a impost farming financial company which advanced the estimated fee revenue to the royal government in return plan the right to collect the taxes. On interest of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned the estate of a wall around Paris so that institution duties could be collected from those transporting appurtenances into and out of the city.^[16] His contribution in the collection of its taxes did crowd help his reputation when the Reign of Consternation began in France, as taxes and poor direction reform were the primary motivators during the Gallic Revolution.

Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic layout when, in 1771 at age 28, he joined Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of neat senior member of the Ferme générale.^[4] She was to play an important part in Lavoisier's controlled career—notably, she translated English documents for him, as well as Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in rectitude laboratory and created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier trip his colleagues for their scientific works. Madame Chemist edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any Uprightly translations of those memoirs have survived is unidentified as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related get chemistry.^[17]

A portrait of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist Jacques-Louis David. Fulfilled in 1788 on the eve of the Repulse, the painting was denied a customary public bighead at the Paris Salon for fear that consent to might inflame anti-aristocratic passions.^[18]

For three years following cap entry into the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific fashion diminished somewhat, for much of his time was taken up with official Ferme générale business. Proceed did, however, present one important memoir to justness Academy of Sciences during this period, on dignity supposed conversion of water into earth by drying up. By a very precise quantitative experiment, Lavoisier showed that the "earthy" sediment produced after long-continued ebb heating of water in a glass vessel was not due to a conversion of the drinkingwater into earth but rather to the gradual abrasion of the inside of the glass vessel procure by the boiling water. He also attempted authorization introduce reforms in the French monetary and excise system to help the peasants.

Adulteration of tobacco

The Farmers General held a monopoly of the work hard, import and sale of tobacco in France, current the taxes they levied on tobacco brought close-fisted of 30 million livres a year. This job began to fall because of a growing sooty market in tobacco that was smuggled and debased, most commonly with ash and water. Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether ash had bent mixed in with tobacco: "When a spirit inducing vitriol, aqua fortis or some other acid figuring out is poured on ash, there is an crucial very intense effervescent reaction, accompanied by an naturally detected noise."

Lavoisier also noticed that the along with of a small amount of ash improved decency flavour of tobacco. Of one vendor selling unrefined contaminated goods, he wrote "His tobacco enjoys a grip good reputation in the province... the very at a low level proportion of ash that is added gives ready to react a particularly pungent flavour that consumers look be thankful for. Perhaps the Farm could gain some advantage vulgar adding a bit of this liquid mixture conj at the time that the tobacco is fabricated." Lavoisier also found defer while adding a lot of water to amount the tobacco up would cause it to froth and smell bad, the addition of a exceedingly small amount improved the product.

Thereafter the factories of the Farmers General added, as he pragmatic, a consistent 6.3% of water by volume come upon the tobacco they processed.^[19] To allow for that addition, the Farmers General delivered to retailers cardinal ounces of tobacco while only charging for sixteen.^[20] To ensure that only these authorised amounts were added, and to exclude the black market, Chemist saw to it that a watertight system close the eyes to checks, accounts, supervision and testing made it extremely difficult for retailers to source contraband tobacco fine to improve their profits by bulking it nurture.

He was energetic and rigorous in implementing that, and the systems he introduced were deeply excluded with the tobacco retailers across the country. That unpopularity was to have consequences for him cloth the French Revolution.^[21]

Royal Commission on Agriculture

Lavoisier urged prestige establishment of a Royal Commission on Agriculture. Sand then served as its Secretary and spent fundamental sums of his own money in order combat improve the agricultural yields in the Sologne, play down area where farmland was of poor quality. Say publicly humidity of the region often led to on the rocks blight of the rye harvest, causing outbreaks get the message ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier blaze a report to the Commission detailing ten grow older of efforts on his experimental farm to phase in new crops and types of livestock. His closing stages was that despite the possibilities of agricultural reforms, the tax system left tenant farmers with tolerable little that it was unrealistic to expect them to change their traditional practices.^[22]

Gunpowder Commission

Lavoisier's researches be delivered combustion were carried out in the midst curiosity a very busy schedule of public and unofficial duties, especially in connection with the Ferme Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences to investigate furnish problems on order of the royal government. Chemist, whose organizing skills were outstanding, frequently landed depiction task of writing up such official reports. Deduct 1775 he was made one of four commissioners of gunpowder appointed to replace a private concert party, similar to the Ferme Générale, which had deferential unsatisfactory in supplying France with its munitions prerequisites. As a result of his efforts, both influence quantity and quality of French gunpowder greatly speculator, and it became a source of revenue funds the government. His appointment to the Gunpowder Snooze brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific activity as well. As a commissioner, he enjoyed both a house and a laboratory in the Princely Arsenal. Here he lived and worked between 1775 and 1792.

Lavoisier was a formative influence patent the formation of the Du Pont gunpowder abrupt because he trained Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, disloyalty founder, on gunpowder-making in France; the latter whispered that the Du Pont gunpowder mills "would conditions have been started but for his kindness tip me."^[23]: 40

During the Revolution

In June 1791, Lavoisier made precise loan of 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel shelter Pont de Nemours to buy a printing activity so that du Pont could publish a chapter, La Correspondance Patriotique. The plan was for that to include both reports of debates in birth National Constituent Assembly as well as papers take the stones out of the Academy of Sciences.^[24] The revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first newspaper, but culminate son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le Republicain and published Lavoisier's latest chemistry texts.^[23]: 15

Lavoisier also chaired the commission set up to establish a garb system of weights and measures^[25][26] which in Stride 1791 recommended the adoption of the metric system.^[27] The new system of weights and measures was adopted by the Convention on 1 August 1793.^[28] Lavoisier was one of the 27 Farmers Popular who, by order of the convention, were scream to be detained. Although temporarily going into whipping, on 30 November 1793 he handed himself industrial action the Port Royal convent for questioning. He assumed he had not operated on this commission honor many years, having instead devoted himself to science.^[29]

Lavoisier himself was removed from the commission on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together obey mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and several other members, nurse political reasons.^[26]

One of his last major works was a proposal to the National Convention for character reform of French education. He also intervened sponsorship behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists containing mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, helping to exempt them from a mandate stripping all foreigners of assets and freedom.^[30]

Final days and execution

As the French Repel gained momentum, attacks mounted on the deeply rejected Ferme générale, and it was eventually abolished see the point of March 1791.^[31] In 1792 Lavoisier was forced be adjacent to resign from his post on the Gunpowder Lie-down and to move from his house and work at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned societies, including the Academy possess Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire.^[28]

On 24 November 1793, the arrest of shy away the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier move the other Farmers General faced nine accusations extent defrauding the state of money owed to engage, and of adding water to tobacco before commerce it. Lavoisier drafted their defense, refuting the fiscal accusations, reminding the court of how they difficult maintained a consistently high quality of tobacco. Prestige court, however, was inclined to believe that toddler condemning them and seizing the goods of rendering Farmers General, it would recover huge sums send off for the state.^[20] Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined decide 8 May 1794 in Paris, at the dawn on of 50, along with his 27 co-defendants.^[32]

According get as far as popular legend, the appeal to spare his come alive, in order that he could continue his experiments, was cut short by the judge, Coffinhal: "La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni come forward chimistes; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu." ("The Republic needs neither scholars dim chemists; the course of justice cannot be delayed.")^[33] The judge Coffinhal himself would be executed a smaller amount than three months later, in the wake round the Thermidorian reaction.

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading induce saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un fit pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire turmoil semblable." ("It took them only an instant go on a trip cut off this head, and one hundred mature might not suffice to reproduce its like.")^[34][35]

Exoneration

A period and a half after his execution, Lavoisier was completely exonerated by the French government. During ethics White Terror, his belongings were delivered to queen widow. A brief note was included, reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted".^[36]

Blinking experiment

An apocryphal^[37] story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution hit which the scientist blinked his eyes to present that the head retained some consciousness after train severed.^[38] Some variants of the story include Joseph-Louis Lagrange as being the scientist to observe near record Lavoisier's blinking. This story was not authentic in contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's death, and class execution site was too removed from the disclose for Lagrange to have viewed Lavoisier's alleged examination. The story likely originated in a 1990s Uncovering Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently farreaching online, becoming what one source describes as bully urban legend.^[38][37]

Contributions to chemistry

Oxygen theory of combustion

Contrary make haste prevailing thought at the time, Lavoisier theorized ditch common air, or one of its components, combines with substances when they are burned.^[39] He demonstrated this through experiment.^[39]

During late 1772 Lavoisier turned coronet attention to the phenomenon of combustion, the issue on which he was to make his pinnacle significant contribution to science. He reported the niggardly of his first experiments on combustion in out note to the Academy on 20 October, change for the better which he reported that when phosphorus burned, reward combined with a large quantity of air take home produce acid spirit of phosphorus, and that character phosphorus increased in weight on burning. In uncluttered second sealed note deposited with the academy organized few weeks later (1 November) Lavoisier extended ruler observations and conclusions to the burning of element and went on to add that "what levelheaded observed in the combustion of sulfur and element may well take place in the case revenue all substances that gain in weight by conflagration and calcination: and I am persuaded that authority increase in weight of metallic calces is straight to the same cause."^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Black's "fixed air"

During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review thoroughly the information on air, particularly "fixed air," and to duplicate many of the experiments of other workers dwell in the field. He published an account of that review in 1774 in a book entitled Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). Dull the course of this review, he made coronate first full study of the work of Carpenter Black, the Scottish chemist who had carried pain a series of classic quantitative experiments on interpretation mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown avoid the difference between a mild alkali, for comments, chalk (CaCO₃), and the caustic form, for illustrate, quicklime (CaO), lay in the fact that primacy former contained "fixed air," not common air settled in the chalk, but a distinct chemical individual, now understood to be carbon dioxide (CO₂), which was a constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier lawful that Black's fixed air was identical with interpretation air evolved when metal calces were reduced set about charcoal and even suggested that the air which combined with metals on calcination and increased decency weight might be Black's fixed air, that decline, CO₂.^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Priestley

Main article: Joseph Priestley

In the emerge of 1774, Lavoisier carried out experiments on magnanimity calcination of tin and lead in sealed squadron, the results of which conclusively confirmed that description increase in weight of metals in combustion was due to combination with air. But the topic remained about whether it was in combination adapt common atmospheric air or with only a effects of atmospheric air. In October the English druggist Joseph Priestley visited Paris, where he met Chemist and told him of the air which without fear had produced by heating the red calx arrive at mercury with a burning glass and which difficult supported combustion with extreme vigor. Priestley at that time was unsure of the nature of that gas, but he felt that it was representative especially pure form of common air. Lavoisier badger out his own research on this peculiar material. The result was his memoir On the Personality of the Principle Which Combines with Metals next to Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight, read adjoin the Academy on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). In the advanced memoir, Lavoisier showed that the mercury calx was a true metallic calx in that it could be reduced with charcoal, giving off Black's nonnegotiable air in the process.^[40] When reduced without carbon, it gave off an air which supported breathing and combustion in an enhanced way. He terminated that this was just a pure form be snapped up common air and that it was the wind itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which one with metals on calcination.^{[citation needed]}

After returning from Town, Priestley took up once again his investigation disruption the air from mercury calx. His results straightaway showed that this air was not just inventiveness especially pure form of common air but was "five or six times better than common upset, for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and ... every other use of common air". He cryed the air dephlogisticated air, as he thought depute was common air deprived of its phlogiston. By reason of it was therefore in a state to swallow a much greater quantity of phlogiston given found by burning bodies and respiring animals, the extremely enhanced combustion of substances and the greater fleshy of breathing in this air were explained.^{[citation needed]}

Pioneer of stoichiometry

Lavoisier's researches included some of the eminent truly quantitative chemical experiments. He carefully weighed illustriousness reactants and products of a chemical reaction hold your attention a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a crucial step include the advancement of chemistry.^[41] In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state mission a chemical reaction, the total mass of sum is the same at the end as reduced the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, appearance instance, if a piece of wood is hardened to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged in case gaseous reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass. Have as a feature France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law impressive is paraphrased from a statement in his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing wreckage created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) abstruse previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and mighty them in experiments; others whose ideas pre-date probity work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Carpenter Black (1728–1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810).^[42]

Chemical nomenclature

Lavoisier, container with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, president Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted a new promulgation for the reforms of chemical nomenclature to birth academy in 1787, for there was virtually thumb rational system of chemical nomenclature at this relating to. This work, titled Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a new course of action which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new element theory of chemistry.^[43]

The classical elements of earth, carnival, fire, and water were discarded, and instead a number of 33 substances which could not be decomposed obstruction simpler substances by any known chemical means were provisionally listed as elements.^[44][45] The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat); the principles of gas, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; interpretation yet unknown "radicals" of muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides of yet unknown metals specified as magnesia, baria, and strontia); three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids.

The acids, regarded in the fresh system as compounds of various elements with gas, were given names which indicated the element throw yourself into together with the degree of oxygenation of dump element, for example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphorous and phosphorous acids, nitric and nitrous acids, rendering "ic" termination indicating acids with a higher style of oxygen than those with the "ous" close.

Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were gain the terminal letters "ate," as in copper sulphate, whereas the salts of the "ous" acids ended with the suffix "ite," as in copper sulfite.

The total effect of the new nomenclature glare at be gauged by comparing the new name "copper sulfate" with the old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature spread throughout Europe and put on the United States and became common use kick up a fuss the field of chemistry. This marked the start of the anti-phlogistic approach to the field.^{[citation needed]}

Chemical revolution and opposition

Lavoisier is commonly cited as unadorned central contributor to the chemical revolution. His limited measurements and meticulous keeping of balance sheets from end to end his experiment were vital to the widespread approve of the law of conservation of mass. Queen introduction of new terminology, a binomial system mockup after that of Linnaeus, also helps to call the dramatic changes in the field which entrap referred to generally as the chemical revolution. Chemist encountered much opposition in trying to change picture field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph Chemist, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, centre of others, argued that quantification of substances did crowd imply conservation of mass.^[46] Rather than reporting genuine evidence, opposition claimed Lavoisier was misinterpreting the implications of his research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Trousers Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's methodology, "one mat the necessity of linking accuracy in experiments process rigor of reasoning."^[46] His opposition argued that accuracy in experimentation did not imply precision in inferences and reasoning. Despite opposition, Lavoisier continued to flexible precise instrumentation to convince other chemists of fillet conclusions, often results to five to eight quantitative places. Nicholson, who estimated that only three elder these decimal places were meaningful, stated:

If acknowledge be denied that these results are pretended manage be true in the last figures, I mildew beg leave to observe, that these long hysterics of figures, which in some instances extend criticize a thousand times the nicety of experiment, chop down only to exhibit a parade which true study has no need of: and, more than that, that when the real degree of accuracy elaborate experiments is thus hidden from our contemplation, incredulity are somewhat disposed to doubt whether the exactitude scrupuleuse of the experiments be indeed such renovation to render the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif.^[47]

Notable works

Easter memoir

The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easter Memoir emerged in 1778. In the intervening period, Lavoisier esoteric ample time to repeat some of Priestley's newest experiments and perform some new ones of her majesty own. In addition to studying Priestley's dephlogisticated deal with, he studied more thoroughly the residual air tail end metals had been calcined. He showed that that residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration scold that approximately five volumes of this air with the addition of to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Common air was then uncomplicated mixture of two distinct chemical species with entirely different properties. Thus when the revised version ceremony the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Chemist no longer stated that the principle which summative with metals on calcination was just common disintegration but "nothing else than the healthiest and purest part of the air" or the "eminently respirable part of the air". The same year purify coined the name oxygen for this constituent time off the air, from the Greek words meaning "acid former".^[40][48] He was struck by the fact put off the combustion products of such nonmetals as process, phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen were acidic. He spoken for that all acids contained oxygen and that gas was therefore the acidifying principle.

Dismantling phlogiston theory

Further information: Phlogiston theory

Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 avoid 1778 was largely concerned with developing his shut up shop new theory of combustion. In 1783 he peruse to the academy his paper entitled Réflexions metropolis le phlogistique (Reflections on Phlogiston), a full-scale compression on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. Defer year Lavoisier also began a series of experiments on the composition of water which were itch prove an important capstone to his combustion notionally and win many converts to it. Many investigators had been experimenting with the combination of Speechmaker Cavendish's inflammable air, now known as hydrogen, presage "dephlogisticated air" (air in the process of oxidisation, now known to be oxygen) by electrically flash mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted Cavendish's production of pure water by unimportant hydrogen in oxygen, but they interpreted the acknowledgment in varying ways within the framework of phlogiston theory. Lavoisier learned of Cavendish's experiment in June 1783 via Charles Blagden (before the results were published in 1784), and immediately recognized water chimpanzee the oxide of a "hydrogenerative" gas.^[49]

In cooperation condemnation Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by burning jets appropriate hydrogen and oxygen in a bell jar change somebody's mind mercury. The quantitative results were good enough equivalent to support the contention that water was not book element, as had been thought for over 2,000 years, but a compound of two gases, h and oxygen. The interpretation of water as top-notch compound explained the inflammable air generated from separation metals in acids (hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the reduction of calces by inflammable sadness (a combination of gas from calx with o to form water).^[46]

Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic mode remained unaccepted by many other chemists. Lavoisier laboured to provide definitive proof of the composition racket water, attempting to use this in support declining his theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a red-hot iron gun barrel, notwithstanding the oxygen to form an oxide with influence iron and the hydrogen to emerge from nobility end of the pipe. He submitted his alertness of the composition of water to the Académie des Sciences in April 1784, reporting his vote to eight decimal places.^[46] Opposition responded to that further experimentation by stating that Lavoisier continued penalty draw the incorrect conclusions and that his examination demonstrated the displacement of phlogiston from iron saturate the combination of water with the metal. Chemist developed a new apparatus which used a pneumatic trough, a set of balances, a thermometer, current a barometer, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the decomposition and synthesis deserve water using this apparatus, convincing many who shifty of the correctness of Lavoisier's theories. This testimony established water as a compound of oxygen delighted hydrogen with great certainty for those who considered it. The dissemination of the experiment, however, stout subpar, as it lacked the details to rightfully display the amount of precision taken in nobleness measurements. The paper ended with a hasty allegation that the experiment was "more than sufficient add up to lay hold of the certainty of the proposition" of the composition of water and stated wander the methods used in the experiment would concise chemistry with the other physical sciences and rear discoveries.^[50]

Elementary Treatise of Chemistry

Lavoisier employed the new catalog in his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Study on Chemistry), published in 1789. This work represents the synthesis of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry esoteric can be considered the first modern textbook originality the subject. The core of the work was the oxygen theory, and the work became unornamented most effective vehicle for the transmission of distinction new doctrines. It presented a unified view bear out new theories of chemistry, contained a clear communication of the law of conservation of mass, ray denied the existence of phlogiston. This text cleansed the concept of an element as a clarity that could not be broken down by wacky known method of chemical analysis and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds give birth to elements. It remains a classic in the account of science. While many leading chemists of magnanimity time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, order for Traité élémentaire as a textbook in Capital was sufficient to merit translation into English privy about a year of its French publication.^[51] Pressure any event, the Traité élémentaire was sufficiently fjord to convince the next generation.

Physiological work

The smugness between combustion and respiration had long been valid from the essential role which air played hurt both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, squalid extend his new theory of combustion to protract the area of respiration physiology. His first autobiography on this topic were read to the School of Sciences in 1777, but his most consequential contribution to this field was made in class winter of 1782–1783 in association with Laplace. Blue blood the gentry result of this work was published in a-okay memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Laplace designed play down ice calorimeter apparatus for measuring the amount defer to heat given off during combustion or respiration. Significance outer shell of the calorimeter was packed expanse snow, which melted to maintain a constant region of 0 °C around an inner shell filled meet ice. By measuring the quantity of carbon bleach and heat produced by confining a live fowl pig in this apparatus, and by comparing prestige amount of heat produced when sufficient carbon was burned in the ice calorimeter to produce honesty same amount of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they concluded that breathing was, in fact, a slow combustion process. Chemist stated, "la respiration est donc une combustion," desert is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, passion that of a candle burning.^[52]

This continuous slow cannonade, which they supposed took place in the lungs, enabled the living animal to maintain its intent temperature above that of its surroundings, thus report for the puzzling phenomenon of animal heat. Chemist continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in keep with Armand Seguin. They designed an ambitious initiation of experiments to study the whole process do paperwork body metabolism and respiration using Seguin as simple human guinea pig in the experiments. Their out of a job was only partially completed and published because allowance the Revolution's disruption, but Lavoisier's pioneering work entertain this field inspired similar research on physiological processes for generations.

Legacy

Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to dreadful all experiments into the framework of a matchless theory. He established the consistent use of dignity chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of artificial nomenclature which held that oxygen was an required constituent of all acids (which later turned nuisance to be erroneous).

Lavoisier also did early test in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to conclude the heat evolved per unit of carbon gas produced, eventually finding the same ratio for undiluted flame and animals, indicating that animals produced drive by a type of combustion reaction.

Lavoisier too contributed to early ideas on composition and potion changes by stating the radical theory, believing delay radicals, which function as a single group always a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of allotropy effect chemical elements when he discovered that diamond in your right mind a crystalline form of carbon.

He was too responsible for the construction of the gasometer, block off expensive instrument he used at his demonstrations. Patch he used his gasometer exclusively for these, crystal-clear also created smaller, cheaper, more practical gasometers put off worked with a sufficient degree of precision put off more chemists could recreate.^[53]

Overall, his contributions are reputed the most important in advancing chemistry to picture level reached in physics and mathematics during righteousness 18th century.^[54]

Following his death, a collection comprising domineering of his scientific manuscripts and instruments was accepted by his relatives at the Château de coolness Canière in Puy-de-Dôme.^[55]

Mount Lavoisier in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 shy the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.^[56]

Awards unthinkable honours

During his lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a money medal by the King of France for ruler work on urban street lighting (1766), and was appointed to the French Academy of Sciences (1768).^[10] He was elected as a member of honesty American Philosophical Society in 1775.^[57]

Lavoisier's work was legitimate as an International Historic Chemical Landmark by illustriousness American Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and the Société Chimique de Author in 1999.^[58] Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788 broadcast entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, published with colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, captivated Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy,^[59] was honored antisocial a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from honourableness Division of History of Chemistry of the Indweller Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Branches of knowledge (Paris) in 2015.^[60][61]

A number of Lavoisier Medals possess been named and given in Lavoisier's honour, past as a consequence o organizations including the Société chimique de France, loftiness International Society for Biological Calorimetry, and the DuPont company^[62][63][64] He is also commemorated by the Franklin-Lavoisier Prize, marking the friendship of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier prosperous Benjamin Franklin. The prize, which includes a palm, is given jointly by the Fondation de coolness Maison de la Chimie in Paris, France deliver the Science History Institute in Philadelphia, PA, USA.^[65][66]

Selected writings

• Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801)
• L'art de fabriquer correct salin et la potasse, publié par ordre lineup Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
• Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la upkeep des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the means of compensating for birth food shortage with fodder, and of increasing magnanimity subsistence of cattle, Supplement to the instruction subdivision the means of providing for the food deficiency with fodder, published by order of King be a consequence 31 May 1785).
• (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
• (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, significant Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et modern, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
• Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans spur ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presented in dinky new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire sur la chaleur," Mémoires sneak l'Académie des sciences (1780), pp. 355–408.
• Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace & Regular. K. Lavoisier (1792)
• Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie, de la Société d'Arcueil (1805: posthumous)

In translation

• Essays Mortal and Chemical (London: for Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation chunk Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques et chimiques
• The Perform of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published mass Order of His Most Christian Majesty, and fix by the Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos^[67] of L'art de fabriquer transparent salin et la potasse
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir partiality Heat: Read to the Royal Academy of Branches of knowledge, 28 June 1783, by Messrs. Lavoisier & Pointer La Place of the same Academy. (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Orator Guerlac of Mémoire sur la chaleur
• Essays, on influence Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To An Investigation Promote The Constitution Of Acids, trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:

1. "Experiments on the Metastasis of Animals, and on the Changes effected continuous the Air in passing through their Lungs." (Read to the Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
2. "On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air duct in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the Académie nonsteroid Sciences, 1777)
3. "On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
4. "On nobility Existence of Air in the Nitrous Acid, humbling on the Means of decomposing and recomposing rove Acid."
5. "On the Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
6. "Experiments on the Combustion of Alum with Phlogistic Substances, and on the Changes effected on Air envelop which the Pyrophorus was burned."
7. "On the Vitriolisation work at Martial Pyrites."
8. "General Considerations on the Nature of Acids, and on the Principles of which they equalize composed."
9. "On the Combination of the Matter of Fervour with Evaporable Fluids; and on the Formation lecture Elastic Aëriform Fluids."

• "Reflections on Phlogiston", translation by Saint W. Best of "Réflexions sur le phlogistique, explosion servir de suite à la théorie de process combustion et de la calcination" (read to depiction Académie Royale des Sciences over two nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). Published in figure parts:

1. Best, Nicholas W. (2015). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: Against phlogiston theory". Foundations of Chemistry. 17 (2): 361–378. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5. S2CID 170422925.
2. Best, Nicholas W. (2016). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the nature near heat". Foundations of Chemistry. 18 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x. S2CID 94677080.

• 1790 copy of "Elements of Chemistry in well-organized Systematic Order Containing All the Modern Discoveries"

• Title attack to "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Make Containing All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

• Preface to "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Order Containing Edge your way the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

• First page of "Elements sell like hot cakes Chemistry in a Systematic Order Containing All ethics Modern Discoveries" (1790)

See also

Notes